The Historical Perspective

Outline

Learning Objectives

When you have finished reading this lesson, you will be able to

In the final episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation, Captain Jean-Luc Picard finds himself moving among the past, the present, and the future. Jean-Luc discovers that his actions in these three time periods have interwoven to destroy history as we know it. Although this scenario is fictional, the lesson to be learned is valid. The past does, indeed, help determine both the present and the future. As you learn how and why people attempted to create early computers, you will appreciate all the more the important role that computers have today.

The First Computers

The idea of computing is as old as civilization itself--and maybe older. Computers are merely complex counting devices.

The first computing device could have been as simple as a set of stones used to represent bushels of wheat or herds of animals. Figuring the total number of animals in two combined herds or trading cattle for wheat could be represented with stones. When people followed a standard set of procedures to perform calculations with these stones, they created a digital counting device, the predecessor of a computer.
bits.jpg In 1947, a Japanese accountant using an abacus went head-to-head with an American army private who had the latest electromechanical calculator. The abacus won every match, except for the multiplication contest.

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In skilled hands, this Japanese abacus is an efficient calculator.

The abacus illustrates how these ancient computers worked. This computing device could be seen during a stroll through the marketplaces of ancient Beijing, and it is still used today. An abacus has a wooden frame holding wires on which beads are strung. To show a number, you pull down the beads so that each rod represents a digit. For example, you use four rods to represent the number 3,741. To solve a math problem, you simply follow a set of instructions telling you when and where to move the beads.

Another counting device, "Napier's bones," was invented at the beginning of the 1600s by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician. The "bones" were strips of ivory with numbers written on them. When the bones were arranged properly, the user could read the numbers in adjacent columns to find the answer to a multiplication operation.

Clockwork Calculators

If you can solve problems by following a set of simple rules (as you do with an abacus), you can produce a machine to calculate answers automatically. During the sixteenth through the nineteenth centuries, Europeans created several calculating machines that made use of existing technology, specifically clockwork gears and levers.

The first known automatic calculating machine was invented in France in 1642 by Blaise Pascal, who was only nineteen years old at the time. Pascal would later become one of Europe's great philosophers and mathematicians. He was the son of a tax commissioner and frequently worked in his father's office. The job must have bored Pascal, for he dreamed about a device that would save people like his father from the drudgery of doing sums over and over. Pascal's answer was the Pascaline, a mechanical calculator that worked with clockwork gears and levers. To add and subtract, the Pascaline rotated wheels to register values and used a lever to perform the carrying operation from one wheel to another.

Although the Pascaline was not accepted by businesses, Pascal was the first of many computing innovators who were ahead of their time. In recognition of Pascal's contribution to the computing field, a computer programming language has been named for him. This language, Pascal, is often used to teach programming to beginning computer science majors.
bits.jpg Many important contributions to the development of computers have been made by young people--probably because they were not set in their ways and could see beyond the technology of their day.

The next significant improvement in calculating devices was made in 1673 by Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz. Leibniz is best known for his work with Sir Isaac Newton in developing the branch of mathematics known as calculus. Leibniz invented a calculator that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide accurately. The calculator also performed a square root function, although not always accurately.

The first calculator with commercial prospects was known as the "arithmometer." It was developed by the Frenchman Charles Xavier Thomas (known as Charles of Colmar) and won a gold medal at the International Exhibition in London in 1862. The machine could add, subtract, multiply, divide, and calculate square roots with precision.

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Leibniz's calculator, the 'stepped reckoner,' was never perfected enough to be marketed.

Representing Data: From Looms to Business Machines

As inventors worked to improve mechanical calculators, they needed a better way to input data than setting clockwork dials. The means for this better way had already been created, and in an unlikely place--the weaving rooms of France.

The Jacquard Loom

In the early nineteenth century, a French weaver named Joseph Marie Jacquard developed a loom that could be programmed. The loom used large cards with holes punched in them to control automatically the pattern that was woven into the material. The result was a thick, rich cloth with repetitive floral or geometric patterns. Before the invention of this loom, only the wealthy could afford cloth with elaborate patterns. An instant success, Jacquard patterns are still produced to this day.

The punched cards used in Jacquard's loom were adapted by others to serve as the primary form of computer input. Punched cards were used to enter both data and programs, until about twenty years ago.

Charles Babbage and the First Modern Computer Design

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In 1991, the London Science Museum built the difference engine using Babbage's plans, as shown in this woodcut. The machine worked perfectly.
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Augusta Ada Byron, the world's first computer programmer, provided valuable help to Charles Babbage, the 'father of the computer.'

Charles Babbage, born and raised in England in the early 1800s, created the first modern computer design. While Babbage was working on his doctorate, he had to solve many complex formulas, and he could not solve these problems manually in a reasonable length of time. To solve the equations, Babbage began developing a steam-powered machine, which he called the difference engine.

Later, Babbage turned to planning a far more ambitious device, the analytical engine. The machine was designed to use a form of punched card similar to Jacquard's punched cards for data input. This device would have been a full-fledged modern computer with a recognizable IPOS cycle (input, processing, output, and storage). Unfortunately, the technology of Babbage's time could not produce the parts required to complete the analytical engine.

Babbage worked on his plans for years with Augusta Ada Byron, the daughter of the famed poet Lord Byron and the Countess of Lovelace. Augusta Ada, a brilliant mathematician, contributed greatly to Babbage's plans and can be considered the world's first female computer scientist and the first computer programmer. A programming language called Ada is named in her honor.

But the end of Babbage's story isn't a happy one--he depleted much of his fortune trying to build the analytical engine. A working analytical engine was built from Babbage's plans in 1991, and it is currently on display at the Charles Babbage Institute in Minnesota. Charles Babbage has been recognized as "the father of the computer."

Hollerith and the Automated Census Bureau

The next major figure in the history of computing was Dr. Herman Hollerith, a statistician. The United States Constitution calls for a census of the population every ten years, as a means of determining representation in the U.S. House of Representatives. By the late nineteenth century, the hand-processing techniques were taking so long that the 1880 census results took more than seven years to tabulate. The need to automate the census became apparent.

Dr. Hollerith devised a plan to encode the answers to the census questions on punched cards. He also developed a punching device; an electronic, manually fed reader that could process fifty cards in a minute; and a sorting device. These innovations enabled the 1890 census to be completed in two and one-half years--a big improvement over the 1880 census.

When the census was completed, Hollerith decided to perfect his punched-card equipment and market it. He founded the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896 to continue his work.

Although the demand for his machines was great, Hollerith did not enjoy selling or providing service to his customers. In 1911, the Tabulating Machine Company merged with two other companies to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company. Now Hollerith was free to concentrate on inventing better equipment.

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Hollerith's punched-card tabulating machines are the predecessors of today's business computers.

One of the partners, a marketing expert named Thomas Watson Sr., led the new company. Under his guidance, the company was extremely successful. In 1924, management decided that a new name would better indicate the progressive nature of the firm, so the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company became International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).

Toward Modern Computing

techtalk.jpg A computer programmer writes the instructions that tell a computer what to do.

The first electronic computers were complex machines that required large investments to build and use. The computer industry might never have developed without government support and funding. World War II provided a stimulus for governments to invest enough money in research to create powerful computers. The earliest computers, created during the war, were the exclusive possessions of government and military organizations. Only in the 1950s did businesses become producers and consumers of computers. And only in the 1960s did it become obvious that a huge market existed for these machines.

To describe the computer's technical progress since World War II, computer scientists speak of "computer generations." Each generation of technology has its own identifying characteristics. We're now using fourth-generation computer technology, and some experts say a fifth generation is already upon us.

Before the First Generation: Early Electronic Computers

techtalk.jpg A general-purpose computer can perform many different tasks depending on the instructions received.

In the late 1930s, the English mathematician Alan Turing wrote a paper describing all the capabilities and limitations of a hypothetical general-purpose computing machine that became known as the Turing machine. Turing also helped construct the British computer known as Robinson during World War II to decode German messages that had been encrypted by the German Enigma machine. In 1950, Turing published a paper entitled "Computing Machinery and Intelligence," in which he proposed the Turing test of artificial intelligence. Scientists still use this test as a standard. Stated simply, the Turing test requires that a computer be capable of holding a "conversation" (using keyboard and screen) with a person without the person's knowing that he or she is conversing with a computer.

techtalk.jpg A special-purpose computer is designed to perform one specialized task.

Professor John Atanasoff of Iowa State University has been credited with developing some of the concepts that led to the invention of the electronic computer. In 1939, he and a graduate student named Clifford Berry built an electronic calculating machine that could solve systems of equations. Known as the ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer), it was the first special-purpose, electronic digital computer.

Soon after this, Dr. Howard Aiken of Harvard, who had read the notes of Augusta Ada Byron and wanted to construct an "analytical engine," approached IBM. Although IBM was doing very well selling punched-card equipment, the company was interested in opportunities to expand. Thomas Watson hired Aiken and allocated $1 million to undertake the venture. Aiken, along with a team of IBM engineers, completed the Mark I computer in 1944. The Mark I was partly electronic and partly mechanical. It was huge--8 feet high and 55 feet long--and slow, taking 3 to 5 seconds to perform a single multiplication operation. Today's $5 pocket calculators outperform the Mark I.

World War II created a need for the American military to calculate trajectories for missiles quickly. The military asked Dr. John Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania to develop a machine for this purpose. Mauchly worked with a graduate student, J. Presper Eckert, to build the device. Eckert and Mauchly met with Atanasoff and Berry and used their work as a reference. Although commissioned by the military for use in the war, the ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator) was not completed until two months after the war ended.

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ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, and it is said that the lights would dim in Philadelphia whenever ENIAC was turned on. ENIAC was 10 feet high, 10 feet wide, and 100 feet long!

ENIAC could do five multiplication operations in a second, which was much faster than the Mark I. However, ENIAC was difficult to use because every time it was used to solve a new problem, the staff had to rewire it completely to enter the new instructions. At a chance meeting, Eckert discussed these problems with John von Neumann. (At the age of twenty, von Neumann was already known to be a brilliant mathematician. Born, raised, and educated in Hungary, von Neumann moved to America and became a professor of mathematics at Princeton University.) After this discussion, "the wheels started turning." The result was von Neumann's solution to the problems Eckert described: the stored-program concept.

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John von Neumann, the 'second father of the computer.'

With the stored-program concept, the computer's program is stored in internal memory with the data. One key advantage of this technique is that the computer can easily go back to a previous instruction and repeat it. Most of the interesting tasks that today's computers perform stem from repeating certain actions over and over. Since then, all computers that have been sold commercially (beginning with UNIVAC) have used the stored-program concept.

The First Generation (1951 to 1959)

Until 1951, electronic computers were the exclusive possessions of scientists, engineers, and the military. No one had tried to create an electronic digital computer for business purposes. Then ENIAC's creators, Mauchly and Eckert, formed a company to market a commercial version of their latest machine. Known as UNIVAC, this computer used IBM punched cards for input. Because the U.S. Census Bureau was already using IBM punched cards, it was a natural for the Bureau to purchase the first computer in 1951. Mauchly and Eckert's company became the UNIVAC division of Sperry-Rand Corporation (later known as UNISYS).

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Vacuum tubes could multiply two ten-digit numbers forty times per second.

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This UNIVAC I was a commercial version of the ENIAC.

The first generation of computers--usually dated from 1951 to 1959--used vacuum tubes. (You will find that dates for computer generations are not precise, varying from source to source. A change in generation has usually been the result of a major hardware innovation.) First-generation computers were large and slow, and they produced lots of heat. The vacuum tubes failed frequently, so first-generation computers were "down" (not working) much of the time. But they caught the public's imagination. In newspapers and magazines, journalists wrote of "electronic brains" that would change the world.

Noting that a market existed for business computers, IBM announced its first commercial computer, the IBM 701, in 1953. IBM made a total of 19 of these computers. At the time, industry leaders felt that 19 computers should be sufficient to take care of the computing needs of American business! Large, slow, and expensive, these first computers required special facilities and highly trained personnel.

First-generation computers were given instructions in machine language, which is composed entirely of the numbers 0 and 1. Machine language was designed in this manner because electronic computers use the binary number system. Because machine language is very difficult to work with, only a few specialists understood how to program these early computers.

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Magnetic drums provided secondary storage for first-generation computers.

All data and instructions came into the first-generation computers from punched cards. Computer secondary storage consisted of magnetic drums. It wasn't until 1957 that magnetic tape was introduced as a faster and more convenient secondary storage medium. A single tape could hold the contents of approximately 1,100 punched cards (about 21 pages of information).

The Second Generation (1959 to 1963)

First-generation computers were notoriously unreliable, largely because the vacuum tubes kept burning out. To keep the ENIAC running, for example, students with grocery carts full of tubes were on hand to change the dozens of tubes that would fail during an average session. But a 1948 invention, the transistor, was to change the way computers were built, leading to the second generation of modern computer technology. Unlike vacuum tubes, transistors are small, require very little power, and run cool. And they're much more reliable. Because second-generation computers were created with transistors instead of vacuum tubes, these computers were faster, smaller, and more reliable than first-generation computers.

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The transistor was invented by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley of Bell Telephone Laboratories.

In the second generation, memory was composed of small magnetic cores strung on wire within the computer. For secondary storage, magnetic disks were developed, although magnetic tape was still commonly used.

Second-generation computers were easier to program than first-generation computers. The reason was the development of high-level languages, which are much easier for people to understand and work with than assembly languages. Also, unlike assembly language, a high-level language is not machine specific; this makes it possible to use the same program on computers produced by different manufacturers.

Second-generation computers could communicate with each other over telephone lines, transmitting data from one location to another. Communication was fairly slow, but a new method of exchanging data and ideas was now available.

techtalk.jpg When slow I/O devices caused the computer to be idle, the central processing unit (CPU) was said to be 'I/O bound.'

These second-generation computers had some problems. The input and output devices were so slow that the computer itself frequently sat idle, waiting for cards to be read or reports to be printed. Two different but equally important solutions solved this problem. Although both projects began during the second generation and used second-generation technology, neither was completed until well into the third generation.


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Magnetic core memory reduces calculation times.

Dr. Daniel Slotnick developed the first solution. Working with Burroughs Corporation, Slotnick was responsible for designing a computer for the U.S. Department of Defense. He decided to have this new computer address the problem of the machine's idle time waiting for input and output. The computer, known as ILLIAC IV, was completed in 1964. ILLIAC IV was unique in that it had four control units; thus, ILLIAC IV could perform input, output, and math operations at the same time. ILLIAC IV was acknowledged as the first supercomputer, and Slotnick was granted a patent for parallel processing. More commonly known as multiprocessing (because there are multiple central processing units), parallel processing has been used on all supercomputers and numerous mainframes since ILLIAC IV.

A group of professors and students at Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed the second solution. Through Project MAC, (Multiple Access Computer), they created a multiprogramming system that could concurrently process programs being run by different users. Because the computer could switch between programs, it did not have to sit idle waiting for input and output operations.

techtalk.jpg Integrated circuits are also called semiconductors because they are formed by combing layers of materials that have varying capacities to conduct electricity. By etching patterns into these layered materials, the creators can include many transistors and other electronic components on one very small chip.

The Third Generation (1963 to 1975)

As with the first generation of computers, a device that ended the second generation was invented before the second generation began. In 1958, Jack St. Clair Kilby and Robert Noyce invented the first integrated circuit. Integrated circuits incorporate many transistors and electronic circuits on a single wafer or chip of silicon. (Integrated circuits are sometimes called chips because of the way they are made.)

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Integrated circuits are shown here with first-generation vacuum tubes and second-generation transistors.

Integrated circuit technology is responsible for the computer industry's technical progress. By the second generation, scientists knew that more powerful computers could be created by building more complex circuits. But because the circuits had to be wired by hand, these computers were too complex and expensive to build. Integrated circuit technology removed this barrier. The result was a computer that cost no more than first-generation computers but offered more memory and faster processing.


In 1962, a new company built a plant in what is now known as the "Silicon Valley," near San Jose, California. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) rocked the computer industry with the announcement of a revolutionary type of computer based on integrated circuits. The first commercially available minicomputer was introduced in 1965. The PDP-8 (Programmed Data Processor) could fit easily in the corner of a room and did not require the attention of a full-time computer operator. Most unusual, the computer could be accessed by users from different locations in the same building (the implementation of time-sharing, which was developed in second-generation computers). This minicomputer's price tag was about one-fourth the cost of a traditional mainframe. For the first time, smaller companies could afford computers.

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Some models of the DEC PDP-8 minicomputer were small enough to fit in the trunk of a car.

During this time, IBM secured domination of the mainframe market by releasing its 360 family of computers. The 360s were different sizes of mainframes based on the same machine language. This sharing of a single machine language enabled businesses to easily upgrade their computers without the usual costs of replacing peripheral equipment and modifying programs to run on new systems.

By 1967, so many different programming languages were in use that IBM decided to "unbundle" its systems. Before that time, buyers received language translators for all the languages that could run on the computer systems they purchased. Now buyers purchased only the translators they needed. The result was a competitive market for language translators and the beginning of the software industry.

Another significant development of this generation was the launching of the first telecommunications satellite. Communications stations on the earth could transmit and receive data to and from the satellites, enabling worldwide communications between computer systems.

The Fourth Generation (1975 to Today)

In the early 1970s, an Intel Corporation engineer, Dr. Ted Hoff, was given the task of designing an integrated circuit to power a digital watch. Previously, these circuits had to be redesigned every time a new model of the watch appeared. Hoff decided that he could avoid costly redesigns by creating a tiny computer on a chip. The result was the Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor. A microprocessor chip holds on a single chip the entire control unit and arithmetic-logic unit of a computer.

The significance of the microprocessor cannot be overstated--it has changed the world. The techniques, called very large scale integration (VLSI), used to build microprocessors enable chip companies to mass-produce computer chips that contain hundreds of thousands, or even millions, of transistors.

The microprocessor's bright future wasn't clear in 1974, though. The company that had asked Intel to make the watch circuit wasn't impressed and never used it fully. Still, Intel persisted. The company's 8080 chip interested only computer hobbyists, but it had technical improvements that made it suitable for serious computing.

The large computer companies considered the microcomputer nothing but a toy, and the first microcomputers were aimed at computer hobbyists. The MITS Altair, marketed in 1975, was the first commercially available microcomputer. The Altair used Intel's 8080 chip. Calling the Altair a microcomputer may be dignifying it more than it deserves, however. It had no screen, no keyboard, and no capability to store programs or data! Third-party firms quickly developed these additional devices for the Altair.

During the late 1970s, many companies released microcomputer kits, but they were difficult to assemble. However, two young entrepreneurs, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, dreamed of creating an "appliance computer." They wanted a microcomputer so simple that you could take it out of the box, plug it in, and use it, just as you use a toaster oven. Jobs and Wozniak set up shop in a garage after selling a Volkswagen for $1,300 to raise the needed capital. With the help of business expert Mike Markkula, they founded Apple Computer, Inc., in April 1977. Its first product, the Apple I, was a processor board intended for hobbyists, but the experience the company gained in building the Apple I led to the Apple II computer system.


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The Apple I. Early Apple computers.
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The two Steves--Steve Jobs (in the white sweater and red shirt) and Steve Wozniak--are holding the Apple I board.
 

The Apple II was a huge success. With a keyboard, monitor, floppy disk drive, and operating system, the Apple II was a complete microcomputer system. Apple Computer, Inc., became one of the leading forces in the microcomputer market. The introduction of the first electronic spreadsheet software, VisiCalc, in 1979 helped convince the world that these little microcomputers were more than toys.

In 1980, IBM decided that the microcomputer market was too promising to ignore and contracted with Microsoft Corporation to write an operating system for a new microcomputer. The IBM Personal Computer (PC), with a microprocessor chip made by Intel Corporation and a Microsoft operating system, was released in 1981. Because Microsoft and Intel were independent contractors, they were free to place their products on the open market. As a result, many different manufacturers produced microcomputers that are now known as IBM compatibles.

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The IBM PC.

Fourth-generation technology is still going strong. Efforts to pack even more transistors on one chip have led to such developments as Intel's Pentium Pro microprocessor. It contains 5.5 million transistors--a far cry from the 2,250 transistors found in the first Intel chip. Many experts believe that further miniaturization efforts will create billions of transistors on one chip.

Although high-level languages are still used extensively, very high-level languages appeared during the fourth generation. A very high-level language is really a way of writing instructions for a complex application program that has a large command set. Most new languages are based on a concept known as object-oriented programming (OOP), which encourages programmers to reuse code by maintaining libraries of code segments.

Another fourth-generation development is the spread of high-speed computer networking, which enables computers to communicate and share data. Within organizations, local area networks (LANs) connect several dozen or even several hundred computers within a limited geographic area (one building or several buildings near each other). Wide area networks (WANs) provide global connections for today's computers.

Computer Technology Today

Today's microcomputer is smaller, faster, cheaper, and more powerful than ENIAC. Microcomputers are available in desktop, laptop, notebook, and palmtop models. The Christmas season of 1994 was notable for the computer industry because for the first time, the sales of microcomputers exceeded the sales of television sets. It has been estimated that by 2010, microcomputers will be as common as television sets.

Because of microcomputers, individuals who are not computer professionals are now the majority of users. To make computers more user friendly (easier to work with), companies developed graphical user interfaces. A graphical user interface (GUI) provides icons (pictures) and menus (lists of command choices) that users can select with a mouse. The first commercially marketed GUI, known as Finder, was introduced by Apple for the Macintosh in 1984. Microsoft has developed a similar GUI, known as Windows, that is popular on IBM-compatible microcomputers. In addition, most new applications include tutorials and extensive help for new users.

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Graphical user interfaces, such as Microsoft Windows 95, enable new computer users to learn to use a personal computer quickly.

The microcomputer industry has been split between the Apple and IBM families of microcomputers since 1981. Historically, these two families could not use the same programs. This changed in 1991 when Apple, IBM, and Motorola entered into an agreement that has resulted in the development of microcomputers that can switch between a Macintosh mode and an IBM mode. Since 1992, all Apple Macintosh computers come equipped with the capability of reading IBM formatted floppy disks and executing programs written for IBM microcomputers. In late 1995, IBM released computers capable of reading Apple formatted floppy disks and running programs written for Apple computers. In 1996, IBM purchased license rights to the Apple Macintosh operating system. It is a matter of time before the two families become one.

A Fifth Generation?

If there is a fifth generation, it's slow in coming; after all, the last one began in 1975. (Remember though, that dates are arbitrary, and we may soon learn that the fifth generation began in 1990!) Major changes are occurring in software as well as in hardware. According to experts, the trademark of the next generation will be artificial intelligence (AI). Computers that use artificial intelligence will have some attributes associated with human intelligence, such as the capabilities to decode and respond to natural language (a human language such as English), to reason and draw inferences, and to recognize patterns in sensory input.

Table 1B.1 Four Stages, or Generations, of Computer Development


Generation Years Circuitry Characterized By
First  1951 to 1959  Vacuum tubes  Magnetic drum and magnetic tape; difficult to program; used machine language and assembly language 
Second  1959 to 1963  Transistors  Magnetic cores and magnetic disk; used high-level languages and were easier to program 
Third  1963 to 1975  Integrated circuit  Minicomputer accessible by multiple users from remote terminals  
Fourth  1975 to present  VLSI and the microprocessor chip  Personal computer and user-friendly microprocessor programs; very high-level language; chip object-oriented programming (OOP) 

The human drive to learn required innovations in equipment. Past inventions made future innovations possible. Innovations, from graphics capabilities to parallel processing, have filtered down from the supercomputers to the mainframes. Minicomputers and microcomputers capable of parallel processing are being perfected even as you read this book. You can foresee the future of small computers by watching the developments in the larger machines.

Lesson Summary

Lesson Review

Further Discovery

Computer: A History of the Information Machine. Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray (New York: BasicBooks, 1996).

Engines of the Mind. Joel Shurkin (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996).

Landmarks in Digital Computing: A Smithsonian Pictorial History. Peggy Aldrich Kidwell and Paul E. Ceruzzi (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1994).

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Online Discovery

You can access the Internet resources for the following questions by going to the Que Education and Training Web site at URL http://www.mcp.com/queet/ciyf/onlinelinks.html . From this page, click the link for Lesson 1B and then click the link to the resource you want to access.

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QNotes, Lesson 1b

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